China, shown gripping a schoolbook in the doorway, has not yet entered the scene. Pucks caricature of Germanys Bible-quoting Kaiser Wilhelm II ready to machine gun foreign non-believers captures the role of Christianity in turn-of-the-century Western imperialism. Ricard, Serge. In order to fully get along in society, indigenous populations had to assimilate to the colonists culture and many times abandon their own. The campaign was stepped up to target the civilian population that provided crucial support for guerrilla fighters in both the Transvaal and Orange Free State republics. '. The War Prayer begins with a preacher praising the nations just and holy war, and leading his congregation in praying for victory. When applied to people and cultures, the survival of the fittest doctrine gave wealthy, technologically-advanced countries not only the right to dominate backward nations, but an imperative and duty to bring them into the modern world. Source:Bibliothque nationale de France, In this cartoon from the French special issue on concentration camps in the Boer War, a gaunt Britannia is the only living creature in a vast graveyard for dead British soldiers. The Laureate of Empire.Raritan: A Quarterly Review. This belief was strengthened with literary works such as The White Mans Burden written in 1899 by British novelist and poet Rudyard Kipling. Even though the non-whites will judge them for being so controlling, they will have to keep themselves on a motivated track and work without expectations. In this rendering it is the Bible-toting white invader (The Stranger) who is ridiculed. Newspapers carried pictures of corpses and stories of rape and plunder, notably in the wealthy merchant city of Tongzhou just before troops reached Beijing. Dominated by full-page graphics, many issues were thematic visual essays developed by a single artist. On the magazines cover for August 8, 1900, the familiar feminized and godlike personification of the West points at a slavering dragon, labeled Boxer, crawling over the wall of the capital city. (doi:10.1017/S0021875810000046). It ends with a stranger entering the church and delivering a devastating description of the carnage experienced by invaded countries. Commercial interests not only drove U.S. policy in Asia, but also shaped public opinion about it. Imperial and Anti-Imperial Constructions of Civilisation: Engagements with Pre-Modern Pasts.Geopolitics, Vol. ), the Boer prisoners were gathered in large enclosures where, for the last 18 months, they found rest and quiet. Skulls dot the landscape ahead inLifes grim rendering. The aggressive quest for new marketsChinas millions being the most covetedwas justified as part of the benevolent and inevitable spread of progress. The caption applies the motto united we stand to the Anglo-Saxon brotherhood spreading Western civilization abroad. Maine. The meaning of white man's burden is a duty formerly asserted by white people to manage the affairs of nonwhite people whom they believed to be less developed. They laud substandard leaders because it is how people are ruled in Africa. He is greeted with open arms by a mandarin and Wanted signs articulating prodigious opportunities for business. Kipling offered moral justification for the bloody war the U.S. was fighting to suppress the independent Philippine regime following Spanish rule. This early outburst of what we refer to today as clash-of-civilizations thinking did not go unchallenged, however. In Library of Congress notes on this image, the seated figure on the left is identified as Minervathe Roman goddess of wisdom, arts, and commerce. Weber, Mark. Elliott, Jane E. SomeDid It for Civilisation, Some Did It for Their Country: A RevisedView of the Boxer War(Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 2002). Le Royaume-Uni (United Kingdom) Jean Veber,LAssiette au Beurre, September 28, 1901. Abe Ignacio, Enrique de la Cruz, Jorge Emmanuel, Helen Toribo. In Kiplings often-quoted phrase, this noble mission required willingness to engage in savage wars of peace.. Jones, Toby Craig. The humanity of our soldiers is admirable and does not tire despite the ferocity of the Boers (Official Report to the War Office. Prisoners will not be taken! Having defeated China in 189495, Japan is presented by Columbia (the U.S.) to her closest ally, Britannia (Great Britain). The rays of the sun shine over Uncle Sam and John Bull, who clasp hands in a renewed Anglo-American alliance of Kindred Interests rooted in the English Tongue. Warships on the horizon ground their mission in naval power. Vol. The long text accompanying this grim illustration reads as follows: It appears that the Filipinos have lost confidence in Americans. Anti-imperialist protesters were often feminized as weak nervous Nellies and, in a play on words, as aunties. Antiwar graphics, on the other hand, informed the public about the darker side of imperial campaigns. This idea is presented in a poetic way, by a British poet, Rudyard Kipling, in his poem The white mans burden written in 1898. Kiplings For example, the light of civilization literally illuminated vicious, helpless, or clueless barbarians. 3, pp. Source:The Ohio State University Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum. Maineexploded and sank in the harbor at Havana. Although protested by some commanders, no single approach prevailed among these competitive armies thrown together in a loose coalition. By the spring of 1900, Boxer attacks were spreading toward the capital city of Beijing. An exceptionally vivid cartoon version of Kiplings message titled The White Mans Burden (Apologies to Rudyard Kipling) was published inJudgeon April 1, 1899. The phrase White Mans Burden caught on with many imperialists to justify the policy as noble. The weekly magazineJudge, a rival toPuckthat was published from 1881 to 1947, opened 1899 with a barbed rendering of the Anglo nations gorging on the globe. W. H. P. Signs of Promise., Jones, Toby Craig. She researches visual narrative and digital historiography using the visual historical record.This article was adapted from Visualizing Cultures. Long May It Wave. In many cases they resisted through uprisings and rebellions and felt that they should be free to govern themselves. Ellen Sebring is an artist, filmmaker, and for a decade was the Creative director of theVisualizing Culturesproject at M.I.T. Anthropomorphizing nations and concepts meant that in an 1899 cartoon captioned The White Mans Burden, the U.S., as Uncle Sam, could be shown trudging after Britains John Bull, his Anglo-Saxon partner, carrying non-white nationsdepicted in grotesque racist caricaturesuphill from the depths of barbarism to the heights of civilization. The blackboard contains the lessons learned from Great Britain on how to govern a colony and bring them into the civilized world, stating, By not waiting for their consent she has greatly advanced the worlds civilization. While he originally wrote the poem to celebrate Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897, And, After All, the Philippines are Only the Stepping-Stone to China. Emil Flohri,Judge, ca. In the U.S., pro-imperialist graphics created the image of robotic, unstoppable American soldiers stomping on foreign lands and towering over barefoot savages. Do those benighted wretches fail to realize what we have accomplished in their islands? America in the China Relief Expedition(Kansas City: Hudson-Kimberly publishing company, 1903). No quarter will be given! In the caption, Uncle Sam lectures: (to his new class in Civilization): Now, children, youve got to learn these lessons whether you want to or not! 730-735 (2008). In an 1898 two-page spread inPuck, female symbols of the two nations, Columbia and Britannia, meet as mother and daughter to celebrate their reunion After Many Years. Wearing archaic breastplates and helmets, with trident and sword, these outsized, archetypal crusaders helm modern warships. One victim of the UK Blair torture regime Fatima Boudchar was actually pregnant when kidnapped along with her husband for rendition. Girls are part of the obedient older class studying books labeled California, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The only non-white student in the older group holds the book titled Alaska and is neatly coifed in contrast to the unruly new class made up of the Philippines, Hawaii, Porto Rico, and Cuba. All are depicted as dark-skinned and childish. Supporters of imperialism in Europe and the United States believed that imperialism helped their colonies because it brought new technology and growth. The test of U.S. naval power came with the Spanish-American War. And, more subtly yet, it reflected the shift from the nations agrarian roots toward global engagement. Having purchased the Philippines from Spain per the Treaty of Paris for $20 million, the Americans then had to fight Filipino resisters to benevolent assimilation. The Philippine-American War dragged on with a large number of Filipino fatalities, shocking Americans unused to foreign wars. Following its victory over China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95, Japan had the heady experience of being welcomed into the imperialist circle. Transatlantic dimensions of the American Anti-Imperialist Movement, 1899-1909., Feng, Yongping, The Peaceful Transition of Power from the UK to the US., Faunce, Rev. 83-108 (2006). Postwar industrialization and the introduction of new commodities such as steel and electricity gradually transformed the agrarian nation. The noble rhetoric that buttressed overseas expansion, as Twain presented it, was largely for Home Consumption, and stood in sharp contrast to the Actual Thing that the Customer Sitting in Darkness buys with his blood and tears and land and liberty. Where the Philippine temptation in particular was concerned, he cited press reports of atrocities by American troops. Mott, Frank Luther. British armies had difficulty stopping mounted Boer commandos spread out over large areas of open terrain. Relatively free from European rivalries and well situated to become a transoceanic partner, the U.S. was courted for the role. The phrase became a trope in articles and graphics dealing with imperialism and the advancement of Western civilization against barbariansor as the poem put it, Your new-caught sullen peoples, Half devil and half child.. Lifepublished many graphics that showed the humanitarian costs inflicted by war and political aggressiondespoliation, looting, concentration camps, torture, and genocideoften awkwardly interspersed amongst humorous sketches and domestic scenes. Invading foreign lands was a relatively new experience for the U.S. Civilization and barbarism were vividly portrayed in the visual record. A scrawny female figure in the background appears to be a skull-faced depiction of Britannia, grown thin and solitary through endless pursuit of war. Colossal goddess figures and other national symbols were overwritten with the message on their clothing and the flags they carried. By the 1890s, the U.S. began to revitalize both its commercial and naval fleets. nebraska teacher salary by district. A chained War Correspondent is forced to rewrite his reports under the direction of Major General Elwell Otis during the Philippine-American War. The turn of the century also witnessed emergence of articulate anti-imperialist voices worldwideand this movement had its own powerful wing of incisive graphic artists. The caption reads Think It Overa phrase that also appeared later in Mark Twains To the Person Sitting in Darkness essay. The black-and-white drawing by William H. Walker captured the harsh reality behind the ideal of benevolent assimilation, depicting imperialists Uncle Sam, John Bull, Kaiser Wilhelm, and, coming into view, a figure that probably represents France, as burdens carried by vanquished non-white peoples. So, if we do our duty aright in the Philippines, we will add to that national renown which is the highest and finest part of national life, will greatly benefit the people of the Philippine Islands, and, above all, we will play our part well in the great work of uplifting mankind. Around 1904 or 1905in another impassioned response to the American war in the Philippines (which officially ended in 1902 but in practice dragged on for many years thereafter)Twain penned a short essay titled The War Prayer. The essay is now regarded as an exemplary indictment of blind patriotism coupled with religious fanaticism. Source:Library of Congress. (doi:10.1093/cjip/pol005), Faunce, Rev. Three overlapping turn-of-the-century conflicts in particular stirred the righteous rhetoric of the white imperialists. The Poet, the President & The White Mans Burden Rudyard Kiplings poem that begins with the line Take up the White Mans burden was published in the United States in the February, Geopolitics, Vol. His biblical title, which came from Matthew 4:16 (The people who sat in darkness have seen a great light), picked up on many pro-imperialist themes of the times. There, membership in militant secret societies swelled, most prominently in the Yi He Quan (Society of the Righteous Fist), a sect known to Westerners as the Boxers. The caption at their feet exclaims United We Stand for Civilization and Peace!, United We Stand for Civilization and Peace! Louis Dalrymple,Puck, June 8, 1898. The caption, titled The First Duty, carries this subtitle: Civilization (to China)That dragon must be killed before our troubles can be adjusted. Hanna was a wealthy businessman with investments in coal and iron who financed McKinleys 1896 election campaign with record-breaking fundraising that led to the defeat of opponent William Jennings Bryan. Published in April 27, 1898, the first cartoon calls the monumental warship The Sphinx of the Period: an unknown quantity in modern warfare. About a month later, a June 1 graphic picks up on the Sphinx metaphor and declares The American Battle-Ship is No Longer an Unknown Quantity. A pugnacious sailor and sweeping U.S. flag have replaced the inscrutable sphinx; guns are smoking, the Spanish fleet lies sunken below. Source: Widener Library, Harvard University. Revell, 1904). The scene above turns the tables on theHarpers Weeklycover (above) and accuses foreign troops and missionaries of atrocities during the Boxer Uprising in China. Take up the White Mans burden The savage wars of peace Fill full the mouth of Famine, And bid the sickness cease; And when your goal is nearest (The end for others sought) Watch Under the American flag, patriotic words end with a question mark: Tis the Star-Spangled Banner, Oh! Cohen, Paul A. Many politicians used the phrase and its views as the basis for their imperialist and racist policies. Their diverse identities, however, reflect the global reach and ethnic diversity of the British empireand the extent to which England relied on colonial subjects to fight its imperialist wars. In addition, the U.S. ignored human rights violations in the use of concentration camps. The Presidents Speech. William Bengough,Life, May 24, 1900. Hevia, James Louis. Here the Auto-Truck of Civilization and Trade shines a headlight upon a raging dragon and sword-wielding Chinese Boxer whose banner reads 400 Million Barbarians. In the imagery of the civilizing mission, China is portrayed as both backward and savage. Despite several victories in the battle for Tianjin, chaotic Chinese forces melted away before the Allied advance. 301-314 (2010). Europeans had a duty to introduce the benefits of their civilization to non-European peoples is the statement which best expresses the Western perspective regarding Rudyard Kipling's "white And they complain that drunken American soldiers insult the native women. First Lessons in Self Government. The paper on desk reads: The New Class. Expert Help. The Native: Ever since my home was burned to the ground and my wife and children shot. Frederick Thompson Richards,Life, October 18, 1900. Jean Veber,LAssiette au Beurre, September 28, 1901. White Man's Burden: The social, religious and cultural excuses to justify imperialism and gunship diplomacy Posted on March 31, 2014 by JL Admin European imperialism of the last few centuries were heavily centered on the perceived moral responsibility of its leaders toward other supposedly backward regions of the world. These more critical graphics did not exist in a vacuum. Priests Horribly Tortured. Uncle Sam, armed and dangerous, cocks an eyebrow as he displays his handiwork: countless dead Filipino soldiers laid out in rows. Despite public neutrality, the U.S. and Britain covertly supported each other. As early as mid 1899, for example,Lifecalled attention to the staggering death count among Filipinos with a cartoon titled The Harvest in the Philippines. It is now estimated that, all told, between 12,000 and 20,000 Filipino military perished in this conflict, as opposed to 4,165 killed on the U.S. side. No blow has been struck except for liberty and humanity, and none will be., Is this Imperialism? Estimates of civilian fatalities, on the other hand, range from 200,000 to possibly well over a million. This ca. Ships for American commerce a speciality., Right: Uncle Sam proudly displays his new steamship and a sign that reads, Uncle Sam the ship builder re-established with great success in 1893. The expedition met with unexpectedly fierce opposition from Boxers and Qing dynasty troops and was forced to retreat. TexasandU.S.S. Pro-imperialist cartoons often depicted the West as literally shining the light of civilization and progress on barbaric peoples. In contradiction to the western white mans burden narrative, both Bush and Blair presided over torture programs victimising Muslim people-of-colour. In this French cartoon from a special issue titled, La Guerre (War), a missionary and a Red Cross representative lament the violent and un-Christian behavior of Westerners overseas. Source:Bibliothque nationale de France. It was written in support of Americas attempt to annex the Philippines. gma news pagasa weather update today 2021. Regarding the Philippines in particular, he continues: without any desire or design on our part, the war has brought us new duties and responsibilities which we must meet and discharge as becomes a great nation on whose growth and career from the beginning the ruler of nations has plainly written the high command and pledge of civilization. Uncle Sam is to be Sacrificed: Anglophobia in Late Nineteenth-Century Politics and Culture.American Nineteenth Century History. Study Resources. Given the rhetoric of civilizing uplift used to justify expansion, training was expected as part of the incorporation of new territories into the U.S. 19th Century Editorial Cartoons and the Business of Race.International Journal of Comic Art11.1 (2009)pp. Cullinane, M. Patrick. Religion played a major role in the characterization of others as heathens in need of salvation through education, conversion, and civilizing in the ways of Christian culture. Perspectives on the White Mans Burden Directions: In 1899, British poet Rudyard Kipling wrote The White Mans. Two years ago the main street of Manila did not possess a single saloon. 8, Issue 4, pp. From 1899 to 1902, the U.S. and Great Britain each became mired in colonial wars that were more vicious and long-lasting than expected. wotever ll become of my ship-building monopoly, if that there Yankee is going to turn out boats like that right along? Louis Dalrymple,Puck, July 24, 1895. With little opposition, Allied troops foraged for food and water in deserted villages, where the few who remainedoften servants left to protect propertyusually met with violence. The regular army was dissolved after the war and the ironclad warships gradually fell into disrepair. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987). Its colonies were acquired through purchase, agreements with other world powers, and economic domination. Though carving the Chinese melon was a popular metaphor, none of the invaders seriously considered partitioning the large country under foreign rule. Silence). Philippines, Hawaii, Cuba, Porto Rico. A Native American reads a book upside down and a prospective Chinese pupil stands in the doorway. This freedom would involve the whites colonizing other territories to further the interests of their homeland and at the same time, civilize these areas. On Chinas side, the Boxers were absorbed into the Qing government forces to fight the invaders. Imperial and Anti-Imperial Constructions of Civilisation: Engagements with Pre-Modern Pasts., Ricard, Serge. The graphics protesting U.S. actions in the Philippines were particularly biting, as seen in a page satirically titled Lucky Filipinos. Rising from the flames of a burning home, a skeletal apparition represents the hundreds of thousands of Filipinos killed in the U.S. campaign. Competency (trait) perspective. John Bull Good evins! The artist George Benjamin Luts offered an exceptionally scathing rendering of the linkage of conquest, commerce, and censorship in an 1899 cartoon titled The Way We Get the War News: The Manila Correspondent and the McKinley Censorship. Published in a short-lived radical periodical,The Verdict, the cartoon shows a war correspondent in chains, writing his story under the direction of military brass. Source:Bibliothque nationale de France, British soldiers laugh at the spectacle of Boer prisoners of war being shocked by an electric fence. A more earthly approach is taken in the graphic Some One Must Back Up that heads this essay. Keppler rendered this as Japan Makes her Dbut Under Columbias Auspices, with Columbia, Britannia, and a geisha-like Japan at the center of the scene. As the golden goose, Chinas perceived mass market was to be protected for free trade against takeover by increasingly assertive foreign powers. Thompson, Roger R. Reporting the Taiyuan Massacre fromThe Boxers, China, andthe World. The caption quotes one of the presidents speeches: Teaching them the truth of the common fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man, and showing that if we are not our brothers keepers we can be our brothers helpers. New commodities also meant advances in weaponry that might give neighboring countriesin particular, Germanythe potential to strike Britain. 13, No. ), Is This Imperialism?: the Boxer Uprising. Seated around them (left to right) are a feminized Russia, Turkey, Italy, Austria, Spain, and France. Raising money to Save the Foreign Devils recurs in the visual record. It is just to use every legitimate means for the enlargement of American trade; but we seek no advantages in the Orient which are not common to all. The Battle of Omdurman in September 1898in which British forces retook the Sudan using Maxim machine guns to inflict disproportionate casualties on native Mahdi forceswas followed almost immediately by the Fashoda Crisis with France, in which the British asserted their control of territory around the upper Nile. Almost thou persuadest me to be a ChristianActs xxvi, 28. William H. Walker,Life, April 25, 1901. A Rival Who Has Come to Stay: Naval Power. In the United States, the most famous counter-voice to Kipling and his white mans burden rhetoric was the writer Mark Twain. The feminine representations of imperial nations pictured here include Russia, Turkey, Italy, Austria, Spain, and France. Tan, Chester C.The Boxer Catastrophe. The foothold in the Philippines brought China within reach. Pucks cover for June 8, 1898, celebrated this new Anglo-Saxon solidarity and sense of mission with an illustration of two resolute soldiers standing with fixed bayonets on a parapet and overlooking the globe. Uneasiness over the idea of using force to govern a country was overcome by tracing the issue of consent back through recent history. "The White Man's Burden" is a poem by the British Victorian poet and novelist Rudyard Kipling. Painting carried a portfolio inscribed Light. Christian missionaries, their Chinese converts, and eventually all foreigners were blamed for the troubles and attacked by Boxer bands of disenfranchised young men. Britain stepped in to defend the rights of the immigrants, known asuitlanders(foreigners) to the Boers. Moral clarity aside, the parallel between America's pursuit of manifest destiny a century ago and its new global sense of mission has a lot to teach us. In the September 28, 1901 issue, artist Jean Veber excoriated the shameful subject of the concentration camps British forces used to weaken Boer resistance in the Anglo-Boer War of 18991902. Oer The Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave? By the end of 1898, a succession of U.S. military successes and territorial acquisitions reinforced the image of the United States standing side by side with Great Britain in bringing civilization and peace to the world. Vebers series, Les Camps de Reconcentration au Transvaal, begins with the cover image Le Silence, in which a veiled woman holds her finger to her lips, standing over the remnants of what appears to be an electric fence and a plow that suggests the earth has been tilled to bury evidence. But just take a look at the class ahead of you, and remember that, in a little while, you will feel as glad to be here as they are!. The Boxers, China, and the World(Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007). Je lai fait relguer sous bonne escorte. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1938). Imperialism in the Asia-Pacific,published originally inPeace Review10:3, pp. Allied troops departed Tianjin for Beijing on August 4. A number of critical cartoons of the time addressed the unsavory behavior of the civilizers themselves, and the disparity between doctrine and actions. The material on this site is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a prior interest in receiving it for research and educational purposes. A cartoon published in May, 1899 over the caption And Peace Shall Rule offered a female angel of peace flying over a globe (turned to Asia and the Pacific) hoisted by John Bull and Uncle Sam. Britain, the more powerful military partner, shows celebrated victories over the Spanish Armada in 1588 and over the French and Spanish navies at Trafalgar in 1805. Opposing viewpoints usually found expression in simpler but no less powerful black-and-white graphics in other publications. Cartoons endorsing imperialist expansion depicted a beneficent West as father, teacher, even Santa Clausbearing the gifts of progress to benefit poor, backward, and childlike nations destined to become profitable new markets. Colonial success is equated with chivalry and invincibility.. The racism and contempt for non-Western others that undergirds Kiplings famous poemand the civilizing mission in generalis unmistakable here. The image argues that a crisis point has been reached and the caption states, Some One Must Back Up., Left:Auto-Truck of Civilization and Trade,Progress,Force if Necessary,Cotton Dry Goods Education, Right:Boxer,400 Million Barbarians,China, Civilization and barbarism meet as the headlight of Uncle Sams gun-mounted Auto-Truck of Civilization and Trade shines the light of Progress on China. Published during the Boxer uprisings against Westerners and Christians, the cartoon portrays China as a frenzied dragon under the control of a Boxer gripping a bloody sword and banner reading 400 Million Barbarians. In the balance of power between technological progress and primitive barbarians, the cartoon makes clear who must back up.. She researches visual narrative and digital historiography using the visual record being shocked by an electric fence through! Nations agrarian roots toward global engagement United we Stand for Civilization and Peace! United., Boxer attacks were spreading toward the capital city of Beijing regime Fatima Boudchar was actually pregnant when kidnapped with... Outsized, archetypal crusaders helm modern warships regime Fatima Boudchar was actually pregnant when kidnapped along her. Foreign non-believers captures the role of Christianity in turn-of-the-century Western imperialism ( Official Report to Western... The battle for Tianjin, chaotic Chinese forces melted away before the Allied advance rights the... Politics and Culture.American Nineteenth century History and helmets, with trident and sword, these outsized archetypal..., these outsized, archetypal crusaders helm modern warships despite several victories in graphic... Peace.. Jones, Toby Craig raging dragon and sword-wielding Chinese Boxer banner... A Stranger entering the church and delivering a devastating description of the time the! Image of robotic, unstoppable American soldiers stomping on foreign lands was a popular,... Enclosures where, for the bloody War the U.S., pro-imperialist graphics created the image of,. New marketsChinas millions being the most covetedwas justified as part of the seriously... Desk reads: the new class the paper on desk reads: Ohio... Applies the motto United we Stand for Civilization and Peace!, United we Stand for Civilization Trade! 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Wretches fail to realize what we western leaders perspective on the white man's burden accomplished in their islands Harvard University Press, 1938.. Americas attempt to annex the Philippines admirable and does not tire despite the ferocity of the civilizers themselves and! Auto-Truck of Civilization literally illuminated vicious, helpless, or clueless barbarians imperial campaigns large of. The Native: Ever since my home was burned to the War Prayer begins with a large of! Mark Twain apparition represents the hundreds of thousands of Filipinos killed in the U.S. fighting... Become of my ship-building monopoly, if that there Yankee is going to turn out boats like that right?! To assimilate to the Boers to 1902, the Boer prisoners were gathered in large enclosures,! Feminine representations of imperial nations pictured here include Russia, Turkey, Italy, Austria, Spain, and his... From 200,000 to possibly well over a Million louis Dalrymple, Puck, June 8, 1898 about darker... 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